In contrast, they argued, the prevailing North American culture tends to emphasize individualistic goals and an individualistic self-construal that prioritizes unique traits, abilities, and accomplishments tied to the self rather than to the community. Problem solving is facilitated when the salient mindset is well matched to the task at hand, suggesting that flexibility in cultural mindset also may promote flexible cognitive functioning and adaptability to circumstances (Vezzali et al., 2016). and exercises that directly target how students interpret their experiences, particularly their challenges in school and during learning. To be negatively affected, a person must be exposed to and perceive a potential cue in the environment and be aware of a stereotype about the social group with which he identifies (Aronson et al., 1999). Because of the anticipatory nature of this phase, task analysis depends on a number of key sources of motivation, such as goal orientations, interest, task value, and self-efficacy or outcome expectations. The research described in Box 6-3 illustrates the potential and powerful influence of social identity on learners engagement with a task. The implementation level of theories such as social cognitive theory and expectancy theory is still in initial stages but can significantly contribute to understanding motivation in learning as well as other aspects of life where motivation is crucial. 1. Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivation Theory Classrooms can be structured to make particular goals more or less salient and can shift or reinforce learners goal orientations (Maehr and Midgley, 1996). The scale interest orientation as an indicator of an intrinsic motivational orientation (IMO) refers to the perceived possibilities (or expectations) to realize vocation-related interest as a reason for learning. In randomized field experiments, self-affirmation tasks were associated with better grades for middle school students (Cohen et al., 2006, 2009)4 and college students (Miyake et al., 2010). to learn and their decisions to expend effort on learning, whether in the moment or over time. For example, activities that learners perceive as enjoyable or interesting can foster engagement without the learners. The test is portrayed as either gender-neutral. They can operate separately (e.g., an African American) or in combination (an African American male student) (Oyserman, 2009). Our Motivation Science lab takes an integrative approach, drawing from multiple disciplines (e.g., cognitive, social and educational psychology, cognitive/social Learning environments differ in the learning expectations, rules, and. It is also distinguishable from states related to it, such as engagement, interest, goal orientation, grit, and tenacity, all of which have different antecedents and different implications for learning and achievement (Jrvel and Renninger, 2014). Further, when given the choice, a higher proportion (86%) of students praised for ability chose to examine a folder they were told contained average scores of other test takers, rather than a folder they were told contained new interesting strategies for solving similar test problems. (See also the work of Chan and Lai [2006] on students in Hong Kong; Hulleman et al. Praise received after success influences students later achievement motivation but perhaps not in the way intended. As we discuss below, learners who have a fixed view of intelligence tend to set demonstrating competence as a learning goal, whereas learners who have an incremental theory of intelligence tend to set mastery as a goal and to place greater value on effort. In this chapter, we provide updates and additional elaboration on research in this area. View our suggested citation for this chapter. The effects of social identity on motivation and performance may be positive, as illustrated in the previous section, but negative stereotypes can lead people to underperform on cognitive tasks (see Steele et al., 2002; Walton and Spencer, 2009). This body of work seems to suggest that though there were differences, the performance avoidance may also have different outcomes in societies in which individualism is prioritized than in more collectivistic ones. However, more experimental research is needed to determine whether interventions designed to influence such mindsets benefit learners. WebCompetition is a motivational strategy that generally creates achievement orientations among the learners. For example, several studies have compared students indications of endorsement for performance-avoidance goals and found that Asian students endorsed these goals to a greater degree than European American students did (Elliot et al., 2001; Zusho and Njoku, 2007; Zusho et al., 2005). Share a link to this book page on your preferred social network or via email. Specifically, learners with mastery goals tend to focus on relating new information to existing knowledge as they learn, which supports deep learning and long-term memory for the. friendships and more flexible action plans for achieving those goals. For example, an adolescent who aspires to become a physician but who continually fails her basic science courses may need to protect her sense of competence by either building new strategies for learning science or revising her occupational goals. Similarly, activities that learners perceive as threatening to their sense of competence or self-esteem (e.g., conditions that invoke stereotype threat, discussed below3) may reduce learners motivation and performance even (and sometimes especially) when they intend to perform well. This phenomenon is known as stereotype threat, an unconscious worry that a stereotype about ones social group could be applied to oneself or that one might do something to confirm the stereotype (Steele, 1997). In these approaches, learners were assumed to be passive in the learning process and research focused mainly on individual differences between people (e.g., cognitive abilities, drive for achievement). They also consider how physical aspects of the learning environment, such as classroom structures (Ames, 1986) and social interactions (e.g., Gehlbach et al., 2016), affect learning through their impacts on students goals, beliefs, affect, and actions. Research is needed, however, to better establish the efficacy of practices designed to shape learners thinking about future identities and persistence. With motivation accepted as a malleable, context-sensitive factor, these data provide for both a better understanding of doctoral learning and highlight a potential When learners expect to succeed, they are more likely to put forth the effort and persistence needed to perform well. Five Counseling Theories and Approaches June 1, 2015 Psychotherapy theories provide a framework for therapists and counselors to interpret a clients behavior, thoughts, and feelings and help them navigate a clients journey from diagnosis to post-treatment. Participating students responded to only 16 of the full set of 81 MSLQ Self-Regulated Learning Strategies (English) Scale. Second, the interventions adopt a student-centric perspective that takes into account the students subjective experience in and out of school. Since there is no one theory that represents the cognitive approach to motivation, we have selected one 143145; also see Cerasoli et al.. 2016; Vansteenkiste et al., 2009). Similar negative effects of stereotype threat manifest among Latino youth (Aronson and Salinas, 1997; Gonzales et al., 2002; Schmader and Johns, 2003). When competition is using as a motivational strategy it arouse aspiration of wining, doing better than others. Copyright 2023 National Academy of Sciences. One such strategy is to support learners in trying out multiple ideas before settling on the final idea. Studies such as these are grounded in different theories of motivation related to the learners cognition, affect, or behavior and are intended to affect different aspects of motivation. Praise is important, but what is praised makes a difference (see Box 6-1). Learners who embrace performance-avoidance goals work to avoid looking incompetent or being embarrassed or judged as a failure, whereas those who adopt performance-approach goals seek to appear more competent than others and to be judged socially in a favorable light. When learners want and expect to succeed, they are more likely to value learning, persist at challenging tasks, and perform well. This integration often means taking on the particular knowledge, goals, and practices valued by that group (Nasir, 2002). More recent work has also explored the relationships between such differences and cultural context. The experience of being evaluated in academic settings can heighten self-awareness, including awareness of the stereotypes linked to the social group to which one belongs and that are associated with ones ability (Steele, 1997). First, the interventions directly target the psychological mechanisms that affect student motivation rather than academic content. MyNAP members SAVE 10% off online. Researchers have also tried to integrate the many concepts that have been introduced to explain this complex aspect of learning in order to formulate a more comprehensive understanding of motivational processes and their effects on learning. For example, in one study of college students, five characteristics of informational texts were associated with both interest and better recall: (1) the information was important, new, and valued; (2) the information was unexpected; (3) the text supported readers in making connections with prior knowledge or experience; (4) the text contained imagery and descriptive language; and (5) the author attempted to relate information to readers background knowledge using, for example, comparisons and analogies (Wade et al., 1999). Learners tend to persist in learning when they face a manageable challenge (neither too easy nor too frustrating) and when they see the value and utility of what they are learning. 8. The Self-regulated Some evidence suggests that it is possible to change students self-attributions so that they adopt a growth mindset, which in turn improves their academic performance (Blackwell et al., 2007). Not a MyNAP member yet? Individuals tend to engage in activities that connect them to their social identities because doing so can support their sense of belonging and esteem and help them integrate into a social group. Teachers may participate in an online statistics course in order to satisfy job requirements for continuing education or because they view mastery of the topic as relevant to their identity as a teacher, or both. throughout the life course. Some evidence suggests that these and other multicultural priming interventions improve creativity and persistence because they cue individuals to think of problems as having multiple possible solutions. Work on such interventions is based on the assumption that one cultural perspective is not inherently better than the other: the most effective approaches would depend on what the person is trying to achieve in the moment and the context in which he is operating. Interest is also important in adult learning in part because students and trainees with little interest in a topic may show higher rates of absenteeism and lower levels of performance (Ackerman et al., 2001). 3 When an individual encounters negative stereotypes about his social identity group in the context of a cognitive task, he may underperform on that task; this outcome is attributed to stereotype threat (Steele, 1997). Expectancy-value theories have drawn attention to how learners choose goals depending on their beliefs about both their ability to accomplish a task and the value of that task. Register for a free account to start saving and receiving special member only perks. Table 6-2 summarizes a longstanding view of how the prevailing classroom goal structureoriented toward either mastery goals or performance goalsaffects the classroom climate for learning. Dweck (1986) argued that achievement goals reflect learners underlying theories of the nature of intelligence or ability: whether it is fixed (something with which one is born) or malleable. TABLE 6-1 Mindsets, Goals, and Their Implications for Learning. In middle school, this culturally connected identity is linked to higher grade-point averages among African American (Altschul et al., 2006; Eccles et al., 2006), Latino (Oyserman, 2009), and Native American students in North. However, other studies have not replicated these findings (e.g., Dee, 2015; Hanselman et al., 2017), so research is needed to determine for whom and under which conditions values-affirmation approaches may be effective. This requires bolstering or repositioning dimensions of social identity. In a randomized controlled study, African American and European American college students were asked to write a speech that attributed adversity in learning to a common aspect of the college-adjustment process rather than to personal deficits or their ethnic group (Walton and Cohen, 2011). Academic goals are shaped not only by the immediate learning context but also by the learners goals and challenges, which develop and change. being tested. Motivation is one of the key learner characteristics that determine the rate and success of language learning. We explore research on peoples own beliefs and values, intrinsic motivation, the role of learning goals, and social and cultural factors that affect motivation to learn. The interventions that have shown sustained effects on aspects of motivation and learning are based on relatively brief activities. One possible reason why exercising choice seems to increase motivation is that the act of making a choice induces cognitive dissonance: a feeling of being uncomfortable and unsure about ones decision. Evidence suggests that the opportunity to make meaningful choices during instruction, even if they are small, can support autonomy, motivation, and ultimately, learning and achievement (Moller et al., 2006; Patall et al., 2008, 2010).2. In stark contrast, less than one-quarter (24%) of those praised for effort opted for performance information. These factors include learners beliefs and values, personal goals, and social and cultural context. Some students were praised for their ability (well done for being so smart) and others for their effort (well done for working so hard). Motivation is distinguishable from general cognitive functioning and helps to explain gains in achievement independent of scores on intelligence tests (Murayama et al., 2013). Table 6-1 shows how learners mindsets can relate to their learning goals and behaviors. After 3 years, African American students who had participated in the intervention reported less uncertainty about belonging and showed greater improvement in their grade point averages compared to the European American students. For example, researchers who study psychological aspects of motivation take a motivational systems perspective, viewing motivation as a set of psychological mechanisms and processes, such as those related to setting goals, engagement in learning, and use of self-regulatory strategies (Kanfer, 2015; Linnenbrink-Garcia and Patall, 2016; Yeager and Walton, 2011). One is to remove the social identity characteristic (e.g., race or gender) as an evaluating factor, thereby reducing the possibility of confirming a stereotype (Steele, 1997). Stereotype threat is believed to undermine performance by lowering executive functioning and heightening anxiety and worry about what others will think if the individual fails, which robs the person of working memory resources. There is also strong evidence for the view that engagement and intrinsic motivation develop and change over timethese are not properties of the individual or the environment alone.
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